Complete Description of What I Did
Applying
Constructivist, Cooperative, and Other Learning Theories to the Everyday
Classroom
Abstract top
• Middle Schoolers in Maine all have iBook laptop computers. Has having this tool instantly enriched and engaged student learning? No, it hasn’t, but it has afforded educators an opportunity to do so by integrating a variety of learning theories and practices. Merging learning theories such as cooperative, constructivist, and experiential learning has a synergistic effect on learning when using technology as a medium. Working together through experimentation students not only learn content and skills, they come away with skills to apply and expand to new learning.
• After applying these theories I have seen
students share ideas and skills, negotiate roles in a cooperative project,
wrestle with how to bring several ideas together into one,
troubleshoot and problem solve technology and its many intricacies,
as well as explore content and technology beyond anything they could
have imagined. This process often starts by sharing ideas or
work done by
others, producing a curiosity that is aroused and new ideas being
born.
• Currently I am in my ninth year of teaching a class called Pathways.
It encompasses topics like Internet safety, job exploration, and how to handle
your money wisely. Almost the entire class curriculum is integrated with technology.
Having
explored and applied many different learning theories throughout my master’s
program, I have focused on integrating learning theories and practices such as
cooperative learning,
constructivist learning, experiential learning, offering student product choice
to demonstrate their learning,
and targeting an audience with whom to share their learning and reflection process
throughout
this
12
week
course
for
7th
graders.
• Based on my prior experience in teaching Pathways I have found that cooperative,
constructivist, and experiential learning are catalysts to deeper understanding
and higher level thinking skills. Product choice and targeting an audience
does indeed increase enrichment and engagement in student learning. Having
taught Pathways for a number of years I have seen first hand how the application
of
these learning theories has improved student work. Looking over samples of
student work from the past few years I see students now going more in depth,
challenging
themselves
more,
and
exploring
beyond the requirements of a project. Had I applied these learning theories
years ago, I believe students then would have been able to make similar strides
in
their learning though I must say that the students today have an advantage
with the technology they have at their finger tips.
One
area
that
really
surprised
me
was
how
using
these
theories
and
practices
allowed
for
differentiation of learning between students, even while they worked in small
groups contributing to a common cooperative project. Creativity flowed from
many students given the freedom to choose how they would showcase their learning
to
others.
Intended Outcomes top
Laptops,
laptops, laptops! If you visit virtually any middle school in Maine laptops
will be a ubiquitous icon among students and teachers alike. Does putting
laptops and technology into the hands of adolescents automatically improve
their learning and quality of learning? Of course not, but infusing certain
strategies in teaching with technology can. In this practicum project
I will be applying theories and concepts learned in my master’s
program to use the laptop as a tool that does indeed improve a student’s
educational experience and quality of learning.
I plan to look at how cooperative/collaborative learning and constructivist learning
change the climate of the classroom with the use of technology. Students will
have more choice in how they represent their learning; these choices also allowing
for differentiation among students and their abilities to use technology. In
most project learning that I have done in the past, students represented their
learning in a similar way; perhaps a brochure on one project, a Keynote presentation
for another, a web page, and so on. When students first begin my class some are
very adept at using various technologies while others have a hard time figuring
out
where to begin. By offering student choice students can use the computer to represent
their learning in different ways. Students build on computer skills, understanding,
and knowledge they already have allowing them to work at their own level. I believe
student choice will also increase engagement in class work and activities. Software
that will available for students includes NoteShare, GarageBand, Keynote, NeoOffice,
Comic Life, Pages, iPhoto, iMovie, iWeb, Dreamweaver, Flash, and Fireworks. District
email and a Groupshares space will be available for students use as well.
In cooperative learning projects where student choice is given, combining the
different parts of projects will be a challenge. Say one student uses Keynote
and another Comic Life - how will the different pieces be spliced together into
one project? Problem solving will need to be modeled and encouraged in these
instances.
Hmmmm,
and
problem
solving
is
a
skill
needed
in
life no matter
what you do!
Another area of interest is how the advent of StudyWiz will fit into the classroom.
I am very curious as to how the discussion activity can be integrated and how
well middle schoolers will take to it.
We’ve got this terrific device. We have great software and services. Let’s
apply these learning strategies and theories and see if student learning and
engagement increases.
Review of the Literature top
Cooperative and Collaborative Learning
In a study done to gauge students’ perceptions of efficacy from traditional
lecture style classes compared to small group interaction, it was interesting
to see that instructors, college level in this instance, expected their students
to be able to think critically yet did not teach in a manner that encouraged
it (paraphrased from Greenop, Students' Perceptions of Efficacy and Preference
for Two Lecture Formats, p. 361). Many classes in college have huge numbers
of
students
on
their
rolls
and the instructor is trying to be as efficient as possible in moving through
their
curriculum by being a disseminator of information. Teachers at other levels can
be tempted to do much the same thing. As teachers, if we want our students to
perform with higher critical thinking skills, be able to be resourceful, and
be interdependent within a group, we need to teach in a way that promotes it.
According to Vygotsky, learning is socially constructed. Learning takes place
when one interacts with others. (Greenop, p. 361-2) Teaching as the ‘sage
on the stage’ where a teacher is asking questions to the large group, the
questions generally end up being classified in the lower end of Bloom’s
Taxonomy. When the teacher moved that content to questions being thought about
through a small group activity much higher order skills were required in generating
an answer, often through discussion or debate. (Greenop, p. 364) Everyone gets
to be involved in answering the question or solving the problem, not the few
that get called on in a traditional classroom. Higher level questions can be
asked and chewed over using a small group format.
“A group--whether it be the whole class or a learning group within the
class--can accomplish meaningful learning and solve problems better than any
individual can alone.” (Tinzmann, 1990) One person, working alone, has
his/her own base of knowledge and skill set to work with. When you get a group
of people working together you increase that base of knowledge and skills. The
resources and options available in solving a problem have multiplied dramatically.
Synergy can happen when people bring their areas of expertise together to create
something none of them would have imagined on their own!
In teaching with a cooperative learning philosophy, the teacher becomes a facilitator
and coach. They become the resource person, or aid students in how they can find
the resources they are seeking. Teaching students how to do their own leg work
gives them the skills to do it again and again on their own in other areas of
study or life. It is like the saying, ‘Give a man a fish and he’ll
eat for a day, teach a man to fish and he’ll eat for a lifetime’.
"In working in a group Vygotsky also found that students working toward a common
goal or solution to a problem will regulate each other’s actions. They
will assist each other much like adults help students." (Tinzmann, 1990) Roles,
assigned by teacher or assigned within the group is important. Who is responsible
for what should be assigned as soon as a group has come up with a plan for the
group’s task. Students working in a group will often keep each other accountable
in their respective responsibilities.
Students in Pathways will be working collaboratively and have different responsibilities,
possibly some electing to tackle multiple tasks within the various projects.
This will help differentiate the experience for each student. Students will come
to the project with a variety of skills, experiences, and expertise. They will
be learning together, helping one another figure out how to tie things together,
reflecting on the process over and over as they work to create the pieces which
will ultimately culminate into a final product.
Experiential Learning
In Pathways students will be learning many of new technologies. For the most
part students will jump right in to this process using what little experience
they may have. Life is often like that…sometimes you just have to do something
to learn how to do it.
"Experiential learning can be represented by a four-stage cycle:
1. Begin by engaging in behavior on the basis of your current action theory.
2. You then assess the consequences of your actions through reflection and feedback.
3. Next, you reflect on the effectiveness of your actions and reformulate or
refine your action theory.
4. Finally, you implement your revised action theory by engaging in a modified
set of behaviors."
Johnson and Johnson, Joining Together, Experiential Learning – chapter
2, p. 49.
As they try new technologies students will be encouraged to explore the the many
buttons
and
menu selections at their disposal. When they encounter a problem they will need
to
experiment.
Based on the results of what they try, their experience,
they will either have to try something else or be able to build on what they
have discovered. This is one area that is so neat about technology. One discovery
often leads one to explore something else with new possibilities to consider.
Very much like life – what a great lesson to learn!
“Facilitating involves creating rich environments and activities for linking
new information to prior knowledge, providing opportunities for collaborative
work and problem solving, and offering students a multiplicity of authentic learning
tasks.” (Tinzmann, p. 4)
The way in which I have scaffolded Pathways, students will experience a variety
of
ways to use technology. As we progress from one project to the next they will
be looking back at the experiences they have had and judge how those experiences
will work in their present situation.
Constructivism
“Constructivist learning theory is based on Piaget’s developmental
learning theory and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural learning theory. According
to constructivism, knowledge is actively constructed in the brain not only by
means of physical growth and development, but also of social interaction.” (Altun
and Büyükduman, 2007, p.31)
“… constructivism suggests a new purpose for class work: to encourage
students to construct their own full understandings of the workings of a subject
area. Constructing an understanding requires that students have opportunities
to articulate their ideas, test those ideas through experimentation and conversation,
and consider connections between the phenomena they are examining and other aspects
of their lives.” (Wilhelm, Friedmann, and Erikson, p. 31)
It seems that constructivism fits easily into cooperative and experiential learning.
One brings prior experience and knowledge on which to build new learning and
understanding. Working by oneself, it would be easy to fall prey to tunnel vision
learning, following a path depending only on one's own previous experiences.
By working collaboratively the new perspectives and learning taking place can
be much richer and diversified. As with experiential learning, reflection plays
an important role as students experiment and make connections to what they already
know.
Research indicates that some students will put up some resistance to constructivist
learning because they are so used to teacher centered education. Many found it
was much more work. On the flip side though, other students remarked that they
learned a lot more from the class being taught this way and found the classroom
environment more enjoyable. Teachers got a little surprise in that the beliefs
they had in some of their students increased. They found that students could
express themselves better in a constructivist environment than they could in
a traditional student centered class. Since students are constructing knowledge
themselves, they are more able to demonstrate what it is they are learning. (Altun
and Büyükduman, 2007, p.35)
“ Coaching involves giving hints or cues, providing feedback, redirecting
students' efforts, and helping them use a strategy. A major principle of coaching
is to provide the right amount of help when students need it--neither too much
nor too little so that students retain as much responsibility as possible for
their own learning.” (Tinzmann, p. 6)
In Pathways students will be continually constructing knowledge. In the beginning
they will be constructing it cooperatively and lean on me for some direction
when they are stymied.
As
we
near
their ‘Final
Career
Project’ they will have more individual choice and use each other more
as resources. Individual choice does indeed allow for students to better demonstrate
what they have learned and can show it in a product most representative of their
interest in skills.
Student Choice
“ ...students assume much more responsibility
in a collaborative classroom for planning their own learning activities. Ideally,
these plans derive in part from goals students set for themselves. Thoughtful
planning by the teacher ensures that students can work together to attain their
own goals and capitalize on their own abilities, knowledge, and strategies within
the parameters set by the teacher. Students are more likely to engage in these
tasks with more purpose and interest than in traditional classrooms.” (Tinzmann,
p. 7-8)
By offering choice into student designed products, engagement in student work
has increased noticeably compared to previous trimesters where we all had similar
products. The different products allow students to capitalize and build on their
own strengths. They seem more likely to challenge themselves, going beyond
the required items on a project checklist. One thing that spurs them
on is to see products that other students have created. This gets them to thinking,
and before long they have come up with some pretty unique ideas themselves.
Audience
“ Collaboration around authentic tasks often takes place with peers and
mentors within school as well as with family members and others in the real world
outside of school. These tasks often require integrated instruction that incorporates
problem-based learning and curriculum by project.” (Valdez)
Students often ask “Why are we doing this?” Doing a project that
will
be seen by others often motivates students in doing a project giving
them a purpose in doing it well. In Pathways we are continually gathering
data to include in our ‘Final Career Project’. When it is finished
it well be shared with two adults, preferable parents, who know them well. These
adults are to look at what students have compiled about themselves and the possible
jobs they are interested in to give them feedback about the
initial curiosities they are having in their search for the best job for themselves.
The adults are then to share what they may see
in the child that perhaps the child doesn’t see in themselves and to share
from the wealth of life experiences they have lived and gone through. I am in
hopes that this will start the dialogue between parent and child in their career
exploration and exposure that needs to take place over the next few years as
students try to get some sort of direction in which to invest themselves for
their futures.
Methodology top
Clear picture of the goals for your project (by the end of it what do
you hope to accomplish?)
•
Students will be more challenged and engaged.
•
Students will be able to work at their own level and build on skills
they already have.
•
Students will be able to open a piece of software and understand how
to figure out what it does.
•
Students will be able to export projects into a medium able to be read
by most computers (html, QuickTime, JPEG, PDF, etc.)
•
Students will be able to use their resources and new found experience
for solving problems they may run into, be it software issues or combining
cooperative
project
segments from
different
computers, possibly from different software applications.
Description of anyone who will be involved your students, teachers
in your district, parents – whomever you will be working with.
•
My class is part of the seventh grade exploratory rotation. Students
in my Pathways class will be my primary focus.
Explanation of the methods for addressing your "problem"
Content taught will remain the same as it has been previously to this
practicum experience: Internet Safety, Relating Self Awareness to Job
Exploration, and How to Handle Your
Money Wisely.
What will be changed and analyzed is how the use of constructivist learning,
cooperative learning, experiential learning, product
choice, and having an audience impact student
engagement, learning, and differentiation.
Description of potential supports and challenges
•
A challenge for students and myself will be blending cooperative projects
with students using various tools. One project we do is called the Final
Career Project. In the past we have done this as a brochure. Setting
up a brochure used an array of technology skills and when finished is
easy to take home to get feedback from parents in the student's initial
exploration of different careers and how well various jobs fit them.
This trimester
students will have choice in the product. For a student authoring their
project in something like iWeb or Keynote, it will be a challenge to
get that project home for parent review if a student cannot take their
computer home.
Timeline
The practicum project started in December 2007 and went through March
2008. Our terms are trimesters where I teach so I
integrated many of the concepts from my graduate program during the
second trimester of the school year. I have been integrating many of
the ideas from my graduate program as I have learned them. However, having
just completed Gail Garthwait's Computers and Cooperative Learning class
as this second trimester began, cooperative learning seemed to
be the catalyst that synergized many of the learning theories and practices
we had explored during my time in the graduate program.
Complete description
of what I did – see
this exported NoteShare Journal
Here are samples of student notebooks that were used throughout the trimester:
Netiquette - Internet Safety
Who Am I - Developing a Self Awareness of Who We Are
Job Exploration - Starting our journey in discovering what jobs are out there
Budget Questions - A quick introduction to money management
My Results in Regards to the Literature top
Results: Cooperative Learning
Cooperative
learning certainly has added a whole new dimension to my class. When
the state of Maine first implemented the Maine Learning Technology
Initiative one of the first things I noticed students do was to become
'one' with their laptop. They all had their own computer and it was theirs
for the school year. There was little sharing between students as they
were so entrenched in what they themselves were doing. Cooperative learning
has forced them to share, to help each other, to communicate with each
other. Class climate also helped. I started right out with the FISH!
Philosophy and teamwork goals. We kept referring back to these foundational
pieces to keep students in a cooperative frame of mind.
I found quite often that there seemed to be one person in each group who just naturally took charge and kept things going. Some of these students assigned tasks to their team mates while others solicited ideas from those they were working with. Regardless, these groups got things done. Their leader provided a direction in which to head. There were some groups that needed intervention from myself in getting things rolling and keeping on track. A lot of coaching took place in these instances trying to get groups to come up with ideas on how to proceed through a project successfully.
Working toward a common goal they were more likely to help each other. They had a reason to see beyond themselves: they would benefit from helping their partners in the long run. There was a little helping between teams but for the most part they worked and helped within the framework of their own group.
Results: Experiential and Constructivist Learning
Learning to use new technologies, the students did indeed go under much experiential and constructivist learning. In many cases I would start with a mini-lesson to give them a base on which to start prodding about a program, to give them an idea of what the software was capable of. From there I became a resource person providing instruction, often individually or in small groups, teaching them skills as they found they needed them. They were able to take a look at what they were doing, try it again with a little twist and see what happened, reflecting on previous experiences to construct new skills to use and build on.
In
building their own learning I did see some students waver. Some had a
hard time just getting started. I really had to help guide these students
with leading questions to help them find a direction to follow. These
too are important skills to obtain. These skills are not mastered in
a purely teacher centered classroom where the teacher is giving all the
direction. Students need to learn how to lead themselves, to become self
directed learners.
Results: Student Choice
Choice in how students demonstrated their learning certainly increased engagement in their work. All groups did a podcast for our first major project. This was a great way to build some foundational skills and get used to working with each other. From then on out choice of product was strongly encouraged. I did some demonstrations of various products to give students some ideas. We all did our research, gathered our information, came up with the implications of what we had learned, and then created some sort of product to share demonstrating what we had learned. They loved having a choice! They seemed empowered to have some say in what they were doing! See two examples of the podcasts below. Note how different they are!
What I really liked about offering student choice was that kids could all perform at their own levels and aptitudes. I found that kids would delve into a topic more just to see how far they could take a piece of software. There were times, however, that I had to bring them back to the content, as they were more mesmerized with figuring out the software. When working with groups in the Cooperative Job Exploration project I originally figured each group would pick the same piece of software to work with. I found that students were at odds with each other because one wanted Keynote, another iWeb, and yet another team member wanted Comic Life. I then realized that they could all have what they wanted and it could still be combined into one final product. What richness this was! What a great opportunity for them to do some problem solving! It also set them up with some great ideas and skills for their Final Career Project.
Cooperative Job Exploration Project
- Animal Scientist
Note: The 'Styles' page was exported as
an interactive Keynote movie so you will need to double click on it
to
view it.
In their Final Career Project, where much of the information we had
harvested is then analyzed and reflected upon, students again had
a choice in how it was constructed. each student was able to challenge
themselves
and work to their own potential. See two samples of the projects
below:
All About Me - integrating iWeb, GarageBand, and Flash, best viewed in Firefox.
The Right Job For Me - done with Keynote, exported as an interactive movie.
Results: Audience
I found that by giving the students an audience they were able to focus their energies in an appropriate direction. For example, for our Internet Safety podcast, the audience would be for people new to using Internet communication tools. They needed to provide these people with information with which to keep themselves and others safe when using these tools. Not only give them advice but tell them why that advice is important. Their classmates were the audience for the cooperative Job Exploration project. Their completed projects were shared in class to help them understand the different aspects and implications of the job research their group had done. We took a look at how information was presented and offered suggestions to improve it. The projects were also shared to show each other how different pieces of software were utilized in conveying their research, therefore giving them ideas on how these software applications might be useful to them in future endeavors. The audience for their Final Career Project was two adults that know them well, preferable their parents. They would be seeking feedback about their project based on what they had learned about themselves, career exploration they had done, and what direction they were thinking about at this time in their lives. A sense of audience gave them focus, purpose, and direction.
Take a look at the student projects in the appendices. You'll see varied levels of skills mastered and creativity demonstrated in the samples of Internet Safety Podcasts and Final Career Projects. You can also see samples of completed NoteShare notebooks used throughout the trimester.
Conclusions top
By integrating the various learning theories students were much more
engaged as a whole. You still had some students needing some prodding,
but for the most part students were more on task and eager to work.
Using cooperative learning led to more opportunities arising from the
negotiation process. This created problem solving situations that the
group had to
figure out so that a group of people could come up with one final project.
They had to figure out how to share information with each other and how
to combine individual pieces authored in different applications so they
would blend into one.
It was
wonderful!
I found student choice in creating a product to be very powerful. Students
chose a type of product to create and were ready to pursue it. It wasn’t
like ‘We
have to do that?!’ It was more like, ‘I want to try….’ and
off they went. Choice also heightened engagement. Another area that it
affected was individual performance. Students got to choose a product
that was suited for their own learning level. They could take where they
were and challenge themselves in areas they were interested in. It didn’t
matter what level they started out at, everyone had the ability to grow
from where they stood.
Having an audience for their Final Career Project gave them a bigger
purpose in the project. Knowing mom, dad, or 2 other adults were going
to respond to them made them think a little more about what they were
going to put into their project. This project is truly a reflection of
who
they are. When they understood that this would be seen at home, it took
on a more serious nature.
StudyWiz was a fabulous tool to distribute class materials and pass
in reflections and research. It came in very handy for those kids whose
laptops went out for repair and came back with the memory erased. They
could
go to those discussions to retrieve the essentials of what was needed
for future work as these forums included the essence of what we were
harvesting in class towards their Final Career Projects. The discussions,
used as a tool for an asynchronous discussion tool, were a little harder
to implement. Some students took right to it while
others
found
it very
hard to respond
to others in a thoughtful fashion.
All in all the integration of these learning theories has increased
the use of critical thinking skills in my class. Students are producing
projects and showcasing their learning in ways I've never seen before.
I do find it takes more energy to manage, as sometimes it feels like
mayhem,
but
with
the
supportive
administration we have here, we’ve been able to pull it together.
Mr. Boz’s room is not reputed as being a quiet one!
I encourage other teachers to try these strategies. The hardest part
is the investment in designing your projects and then the energy needed
to pull
them off.
Students do get much more out of it and come away with skills they never
would have gotten being taught with conventional instruction. Students
get to challenge themselves in ways they wouldn’t have if everybody
was given the same project assignment. They can take it as far as their
imagination
and abilities can be nurtured. They are becoming self directed learners.
Other research that could be done would be in a school where there is
no one to one computing. How would this work if students had to share
computers? Would it be easier because students were all working independently
and at
their own levels anyway? Would students collaborate more?
Another area to research would be to see how the level of creativity, learning, and cooperation compared using self selected groups versus teacher selected groups. In this project I found that having students self select their group yielded a chemistry within that group that fed creativity and collaboration within their individual units.
Next Steps top
There has been a big push for integration of literacy strategies in all content areas in our building. Perhaps you have noticed some used in the notebooks in the appendices. Sum it ups, give one - get one, knowledge rating guides, and others. I would like to explore more of these as a use with these learning theories now established in my classroom. Thinks alouds work great when diving into a new program or using KWL in jumping into a new topic. I believe tools like KWL and the 5Ws and a H will aid in the constructivist aspect of class and give students a tool of their own to use later for themselves.
In this practicum project the groups stayed the same throughout the entire trimester. I still like the idea of that continuity of a group sticking it out over the long haul but may try a few mini activities where I’ll mix up the groups bit on occasion. Jigsaw activities would work well here. I still have a ways to go to fine tune cooperative learning. One area where I need to focus is in the creation and assignment of roles in each group.
I need to continually be open to student ideas so I don't limit them on what they can achieve. In writing this I have started a new trimester with a new group of kids. In one class I've got a couple guys who know a whole lot more about Flash than I do. Instead of a traditional podcast they threw the idea of creating a Flash intro using masks and real video. They have the skills and will create a vidcast using iMovie which will help them take their skills to yet another level.
Appendices top
Journal highlighting what happened through the practicum:
Internet Safety Podcasts
Samples of Student NoteShare Notebooks
- Netiquette - Internet Safety
- Who Am I - Developing a Self Awareness of Who We Are
- Job Exploration - Starting our journey in discovering what jobs are out there
- Budget Questions - A quick introduction to money management
Sample of Job Exploration Project
- Cooperative
Job Exploration Project - Animal Scientist
Note: The 'Styles' page was exported as an interactive Keynote movie so you will need to double click on it to view it.
Samples of Final Career Project
- The Right Job For Me - done with Keynote, best viewed in Firefox.
- All About Me - integrating several pieces of technology, exported as an interactive movie.
References top
Altun, Sertel; Büyükduman, F. IČlke.(January 2007), Teacher
and Student Beliefs on Constructivist Instructional Design: A Case
Study. Educational
Sciences: Theory & Practice, Vol. 7 Issue 1, p30-39,
10p; (AN 24374463)
Duffin, M., & PEER Associates (2006)., Fostering Student Achievement
and Sustainable Communities Through Place-based Learning., Why use place-based
education in your school? Four answers that emerge from the findings
of PEEC, the Place-based Education Evaluation Collaborative. Found at
http://www.promiseofplace.org/why_pbe_matters/why_use_pbe_in_your_school.shtml on Feb. 10, 2008
Greenop, Kirston, (June 2007), Students' perceptions of efficacy
and preference for two lecture formats. South African Journal
of Psychology,
Vol. 37 Issue 2, p361-367; (AN 25655721)
Johnson, D. and Johnson, F., (2006), Joining Together – Group
Theory and Group Skills Ninth Edition, Pearson, pp. 48 – 50
Renzulli, J., and Richards, S, (2004), Academies of Inquiry and Talent
for the Middle School Years, http://www.newhorizons.org/spneeds/gifted/renzulli%20richards.htm,
Feb. 10, 2008
Wilhelm, Friedmann, and Erickson, (1998), Hyperlearning – Where
Projects, Inquiry, and Technology Meet, Stenhouse Publishers, p.
31
Tinzmann, M.B., Jones, B.F., Fennimore, T.F., Bakker, J., Fine, C., and
Pierce, J., (1990), What Is the Collaborative Classroom?, http://www.arp.sprnet.org/Admin/supt/collab2.htm,
Feb 18, 2008